Title Page

Science, Literature and Ethics, Oh My!

A Compilation

By: Mary Parker

For: English 201, Professor Leslie Jewkes

Of: The College of Western Idaho

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Preface/Introduction

Preface:

     I am proud to present this collection of writings to share with my fellow classmates. These writings represent hard work, frustration, growth and even a little bit of pleasure. Included are my essays on the role of the IQ test in scientific discovery, on social ethics in literature and on the future of biomedical experimentation. On a lighter note, there is a power point exploring the typical essay genres, a dry but informative piece. However, I’m especially proud of the creative works that make up part of this blog. These include a cartoon about unrequited love, a bad advice column for writers, and my personal reflection on my growth as a writer over the course of this semester.

Essay #1: IQ Testing

The True Purpose of the IQ Test  Mary Parker  maryparker@mycwi.cc English 201-002W  Professor Leslie Jewkes  10/20/14  ____________________________________________________________ Abstract      The popular perception of intelligence, especially as related to IQ scores, is that it is both innate, and stable, meaning that an individual is either born intelligent or unintelligent, and will remain so for the duration of his or her life. This view of IQ is not only false, but harmful. Studies show that IQ test scores can fluctuate significantly over time, and also that intelligence has more to do with education and opportunities than it does with genetics. A poor understanding of the use of the IQ test can lead to false assumptions in government policy, and creates a situation where the true potential of the IQ test to help researchers understand the brain is wasted. _______________________________________________________ The IQ Test as a Tool, Not a Measurement      When Alfred Binet invented the IQ test, his assignment was to design a test that would identify which children would need special help when they entered the school system, and to determine what kind of help they might need. As the test gained popularity, it became married in both the public and the scientific mindset with the idea of intelligence as a genetic trait. But, since then, studies have shown this idea not only to be false, but to be detrimental to research. The popular perception that IQ is innate, and that an IQ test score reflects a permanent measure of intellectual potential is false, and distracts from the most appropriate application of the IQ score; its use as a tool for the study of how people learn.      Many think of the IQ test as a means to quantify an individual's intelligence, but this was not the IQ test's original purpose. Instead, Alfred Binet's aim was to find a way to help teachers understand their students. Teachers would use the results of the test to identify children who were having difficulties with certain cognitive skills, such as spatial reasoning or language skills, so that they could place these children in special education programs (Minton). Although this view of the purpose of the IQ test is often ignored, an article from the School Psychology Review argues that this is the true purpose of the IQ test, because this is its most useful application. When applied as a tool to study how children learn, the IQ test has the potential to improve the methods teachers use to teach children and even to help children develop superior cognitive skills. Additionally, the article argues that failure to use the IQ test in a way that benefits the public could cause researchers to abandon it altogether. If that were to happen, educators would lose a valuable resource (Esters, et al).      Today, the concept of the IQ test is well known, even outside of the field of psychiatry, but the understanding of what the test can actually do is skewed. The perception of the function of the IQ test is that it provides a concrete and stable measurement of an individual's intellectual potential. So it is almost considered to be a test that a person can “pass” or “fail” to varying degrees. This belief is not limited to popular culture, it pervades the professional and educational arenas as well. One study, published in Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, showed that this misinterpretation of the IQ test causes the government to neglect providing educational aids to some children who need it, because of the false assumption that they cannot be helped. The study was conducted in reaction to a government policy that only allocates funds to help children who show a disparity between their IQ scores and their academic achievement. The reasoning is that the IQ score reveals the child's learning potential, so a child with a low IQ score and correspondingly low grades is simply performing to capacity and cannot be helped. Children with an average or high IQ, but who do poorly in school are determined to have a learning disability, and therefore qualified for special help. This study sought to show that this assumption, that an IQ score determines a child's potential, is not only false, but harmful because it denies certain children the help that they need. The study found that IQ score was relevant to a child's learning potential only in that it revealed specific cognitive weaknesses that the child needed help developing in order to perform academically and to get a better IQ score (Francis, et al). This is an example of how misunderstanding of the IQ score is not only useless to science, but can negatively affect the individual taking the test.      One of the key assumptions supporting use of the IQ test as a measurement tool as opposed to a method to study the brain is that IQ is fairly stable throughout an individual's life. But a study, published in the Journal of Clinical Psychology, that was conducted over sixteen years provides evidence to the contrary. In this study, researchers first gave the IQ test to a group of children, in order to establish a baseline. They then retested them several times over the sixteen year period in order to see whether or not the scores fluctuated over time, and to what degree these scores varied from the baseline scores. They found that the life experiences of the individuals, from stresses, to access to better education, to feelings of acceptance or lack thereof all affected IQ scores. Children who were transferred from poorly funded schools to better schools with more rigorous curriculum achieved significantly higher scores than in previous testings. Meanwhile, children with unstable family lives tended to score poorly, especially after stressful events (Schwartz, et al). Still, some may argue that these results are simply because of the child's natural development; that a child may have higher IQ scores as they develop, or test average as a child but fail to develop further, lowering the IQ score over time. But this study found that these changes in IQ scores were much too erratic to justify that assumption. Researchers found that a child's score could increase or decrease dramatically or not at all between testing periods, and most children's scores fluctuated up and down over time (Schwartz, et al). This not only shows the folly of using the IQ test as a concrete measurement, but also implies that IQ is elastic and therefore can be improved over time, given the right kind of mental stimulation.      Taking these implications a little bit further, the IQ test could potentially be used as a diagnostic tool to help the individual work on areas of weakness, or perhaps focus on certain strengths. IQ tests are designed to test specific skills, such as memory or spatial reasoning, among others. So, potentially, an individual could see their scores in various portions of the test and even have a coach design mental exercises to meet the individual's needs. If the IQ test were used with this principle in mind, it would benefit youths who struggle in school, professionals who want to be better at their jobs, or even the elderly as they work to maintain cognitive skills, such as memory and reasoning, as they age. Individuals could work on their mental fitness the same way that they work on their physical fitness. Even though some brain training programs claim to help people do this, a better understanding of the IQ test could greatly improve these programs and elevate the overall quality of brain training programs.      A major source of controversy in the study of IQ is whether or not IQ can be considered the result of genetics, or the result of opportunities, education and life experiences. The question is controversial because some researchers have made the claim that some ethnic groups as a whole might be more intelligent than others, if only slightly so. This assumption is based upon observations that some minority groups, when tested, have performed somewhat poorly on IQ tests. But a study out of South Africa has done a lot to disprove this assumption.      Researchers studied a sample group of South African citizens, and divided them into two main groups denoted as either white English first language or black African first language groups. These two groups were divided further by quality of education received and grade level achieved. The participants were given a standardized IQ test, and the results were compared between ethnic groups as well as between the educationally advantaged and disadvantaged. Researchers ultimately found that access to quality education, not ethnicity, was most predictive of group IQ score. Black African first language participants who had received quality education and had access to higher learning easily scored as well as white English first language participants of the same educational background. However, black African first language participants from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds scored poorly, revealing the source of any discrepancy in scores between the two ethnic groups as observed in other studies (Shuttleworth-Edwards, et al). This establishes that ethnic minorities may test more poorly as a whole, not because of genetics, but because of lack of access to higher education and poor quality of education in the lower grades.      One of the most important reasons to change the way scientists and even the public view the IQ test is because of studies such as the South African study. The very fact that it was necessary to prove whether or not Africans were less intelligent than Caucasians shows the stigma that low IQ scores have brought upon certain racial groups. It is an example of how false assumptions about the innate nature of intelligence has caused groups of people to be judged as inferior, when low scores should, instead, be taken as a call to provide these people with better education.      Ethnic minorities are not the only ones who suffer a stigma from the misunderstanding of the purpose of the IQ test. An individual of any race may feel shame, and even hopelessness, at scoring low on the IQ test. While it is not clear just how elastic intelligence is, it is certainly clear that one score cannot define an individual for his whole life. But since many do not understand this principle, a low score could easily cause an individual to give up on intellectual pursuit, actually lowering his IQ even further. In this scenario, the use of an IQ test actually harms the individual, instead of helping him by acting as a diagnostic tool and a framework in which to strengthen cognitive weaknesses.      After all of this discussion on the improper use and understanding of the IQ test, it is helpful to see an example of how the IQ test can be used for its original purpose, and that is to help children learn. A study, published in Child Development, was designed to identify the underlying causes of poor IQ scores in a sample group of young children. The goal was to be able to take the findings and apply them to a new educational model that would help these children catch up to their peers. The study found that some of the children did not even have major cognitive impairments, rather, they had been deprived the opportunity to develop the emotional skills they needed to do well on the tests; in other words, their stunted maturity caused them to score poorly even though they had the mental skills to complete the tasks (Zigler, et al). The data from the IQ scores were needed to establish a baseline for the study, so that the researchers could accurately measure the effects of their experiments on the children, to determine exactly what kind of help the children needed to help them improve their scores. This study is an appropriate example of what can be done when the IQ test is used for its original purpose. Researchers can begin to understand what causes perceived or real intellectual weaknesses, and therefore can begin to develop educational programs that strengthen the mind.      In conclusion, when IQ tests are used properly, they can reveal weaknesses in an individual child's thinking so that the child can be helped, or it can uncover the secrets to intelligence and more effective learning strategies. But when it is used as a concrete measurement of an individual's cognitive potential, the practice is not only misguided, but can be hurtful. One of the most hopeful things that scientists have discovered is that intelligence is not a static character trait, but is something that can be nurtured and grown. _________________________________________________________ Works Cited:  Esters, Irvin G., and Richard F. Ittenbach. "Today's IQ Tests: Are They Really Better Than Their Historical Predecessors?." School Psychology Review 26.2 (1997): 211. Academic Search               Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. Francis, David J., and Jack M. Fletcher. "Defining Learning And Language Disabilities: Conceptual And Psychometric Issues With The Use Of IQ Tests." Language, Speech & Hearing Services In Schools 27.2 (1996): 132-143. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept.           2014. Minton, Henry L. "Introduction To: "New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of  Subnormals." Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon (1905)." Classics in the History of Psychology. York University, Toronto, Ontario, n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2014. Schwartz, Edward M., and Anna S. Elonen. "Iq And The Myth Of Stability: A 16-Year Longitudinal Study Of Variations In Intelligence Test Performance." Journal Of Clinical Psychology 31.4 (1975): 687-694. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. Shuttleworth-Edwards, Ann B., et al. "Cross-Cultural Effects On IQ Test Performance: A Review And Preliminary Normative Indications On WAIS-III Test Performance." Journal Of Clinical &      Experimental Neuropsychology 26.7 (2004): 903-920. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept.      2014. Zigler, Edward, and Earl C. Butterfield. "Motivational Aspects Of Changes In Iq Test Performance Of Culturally Deprived Nursery School Children." Child Development 39.1 (1968): 7.                      Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. ____________________________________________________________ Annotated Bibliography Esters, Irvin G., and Richard F. Ittenbach. "Today's IQ Tests: Are They Really Better Than Their Historical Predecessors?." School Psychology Review 26.2 (1997): 211. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.        The authors of this peer reviewed paper are both professors. Esters is a professor of counseling, and Ittenbach is a professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology. In this paper, they discuss the new technology available in the field of IQ testing and how it can be used to improve childrens' education by studying how they learn. One section of the article is particularly relevant to my paper, where they discuss how the IQ test was meant to study how children learn to help improve education, and that an IQ test that is not used to that end is not particularly beneficial. I'll use this when I talk about how the IQ test was not originally developed to give individuals a permanent score related to their intellectual potential, even though this is how the IQ test is thought of today. Francis, David J., and Jack M. Fletcher. "Defining Learning And Language Disabilities: Conceptual And Psychometric Issues With The Use Of IQ Tests." Language, Speech & Hearing Services In Schools 27.2 (1996): 132-143. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.       This paper has been peer reviewed, and was published in an academic journal. It has contributions from five professors from four universities. This article discusses a study that shows that misuse of the IQ test to diagnose disabilities in children prevents a certain group of children from getting the help they need from teachers in order to compete academically. The authors claim that the current model, where administrators assume that children who don't achieve academically and have a correspondingly low IQ are simply unintelligent, prevents a large group of children from being included in programs that would help them. The authors claim that these children have disabilities that cause the low IQ score, and if those issues were addressed, the children would thrive academically. I will use information from this article to show that the prevailing attitude that IQ scores reflect permanent, innate abilities rather than insight into the current strengths and weaknesses of an individual's thinking results in lost opportunity. Schwartz, Edward M., and Anna S. Elonen. "Iq And The Myth Of Stability: A 16-Year Longitudinal Study Of Variations In Intelligence Test Performance." Journal Of Clinical Psychology 31.4 (1975): 687-694. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.       This paper is peer reviewed, written by two professors from the University of Michigan. It discusses a long term study that found that individual IQ scores fluctuated over time, often significantly. The authors argue that a clearer understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the IQ test would result in more realistic applications, not only in the field of study, but in public use. I will use this article when I discuss the current implications of an IQ score, particularly a low one. Today it is assumed that a low IQ implies that the individual will forever be categorized as unintelligent, which only hurts the individual by causing them to give up on intellectual pursuits. The fact that IQ is flexible means that no one is limited by a poor IQ score, to a reasonable extent. This also shows that use of IQ score statistics to show that certain groups of people are genetically inferior is unfounded, and that the focus should instead be on providing minority groups with better resources. Shuttleworth-Edwards, Ann B., et al. "Cross-Cultural Effects On IQ Test Performance: A Review And Preliminary Normative Indications On WAIS-III Test Performance." Journal Of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology 26.7 (2004): 903-920. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.       This paper is peer reviewed, written by several professors from universities in South Africa, where they studied ethnic groups in across different social classes to determine whether IQ is genetic, or cultural. The study shows that education, not race is the primary determinant of IQ. One of the issues in the IQ controversy is whether or not IQ scores show that some people are born with higher intellectual potential, and some use such arguments to “prove” that disadvantaged groups, such as racial minorities are intellectually inferior. This study not only shows that that isn't true, but reveals how misuse of the IQ test as a measurement of individuals, instead of as a research tool, can add to hurtful ignorance in regards to the disadvantaged members of society. Zigler, Edward, and Earl C. Butterfield. "Motivational Aspects Of Changes In Iq Test Performance Of Culturally Deprived Nursery School Children." Child Development 39.1 (1968): 7. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.       This paper is peer reviewed, and written by two professors from Yale. It discusses a study aimed at identifying the reasons why some children have better IQ scores than others. They found that differences in cognitive ability was not the only cause, and that some children who were considered “deprived” had worse scores because of motivational factors. Additionally, they found that putting those children in a program that dealt with those developmental needs helped improve the children's IQ scores more than a cognitive skills focused program. I will use this source as an example of the kind of work the IQ test was developed for, the study of why some children do not do as well as others, and a resource to help researchers find a way to develop new education methods that address these issues.

Personal Writing #1: Missed Connection

Personal Writing #2: Personal Choice

Bad Advice Column for Writers

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Dear Annie,

I am an aspiring writer, and I need your help. I want to write a about something important, but I don’t have any good ideas. What can I do to get inspired?

Sincerely,
Blocked Up

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Dear Blocked,

Think harder.

Sincerely,
Annie

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PowerPoint: Types of Essays

Visual Elements

Analysis Essay #2: Tent City, U.S.A

                                                                

New Historicism Response to Tent City, U.S.A., by George Saunders

Mary Parker

maryparker@mycwi.cc

ENGL 201-002W

Professor Leslie Jewkes

Critical Theory Paper Two

11/17/2014

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Abstract

     George Saunders' Tent City, U.S.A. represents a modern movement of literary honesty in regards to the portrayal of the members of the homeless community. Saunders uses the format of a fictional investigation into the lifestyles of the homeless residents of Fresno California's tent city of 2009 to explore the ever complex question of society's obligation toward the homeless. Unlike many writers from earlier periods, Saunders and some of his contemporaries make an effort to portray both the positive and negative character traits commonly observed in dealings with the homeless, as well as the positive and negative effects of public aid in the lives of the homeless. This approach emphasizes the ethical implications of homelessness above the political.

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New Historicism Response to Tent City, U.S.A., by George Saunders

     Tent City, U.S.A., by George Saunders, depicts life for the homeless community of Fresno California with gritty, realistic detail. This is in line with much of contemporary literature, which favors increasingly realistic portrayals of the homeless and the conditions in which they live. This practice was not always so fashionable. Earlier works of the late nineteenth and early to mid-twentieth century drew a more romanticized picture. However, the modern controversy over what to do with the homeless population has spurred writers to explore the ethical dilemma more realistically. Tent City, U.S.A. represents the result of literature's movement from the portrayal of the homeless as bumbling or tragic caricatures, to a more complex, gritty narrative. George Saunders uses morally ambiguous characters to convey the complexity of the issue, while emphasizing the hopelessness of these people's situations in order to provoke sympathy, and perhaps, action on the part of the reader.

     Saunders' story is narrated by a writer who simply calls himself “PR”, or the Principle Researcher. He is the lens through which the reader encounters the residents of the homeless community, and therefore has the potential to attempt to bias the reader toward one political stance or the other. Yet PR remains almost neutral, allowing the reader to focus on the residents, rather than the politics. Although PR does discuss some of the ethical issues surrounding the homeless community, he keeps his commentary to a minimum. One of the few examples of this is the conversation surrounding PR's mid-study data. PR uses a line graph to discuss the basic tenets regarding the distribution of wealth in an ideal capitalistic society. The placement and duration of this section is telling; it is placed almost exactly in the middle of the story, and, without the illustration, is only half a page long. It is almost hidden within the story, with fifteen or so pages of residents' stories on either side of it to provide context for the discussion. This method allows the residents' stories to dominate the narrative, rather than political arguments. The focus of the story is the various conversations with the residents and the PR's experiences living among them.

     The first resident the PR meets is a woman named Wanda. Her character is significant because of the many contradictions she represents. Her foot is broken, and obviously infected, for which she deserves sympathy from the reader. However, her story as to how she broke the foot immediately calls her character into question. She claims that she was hit by a train, and that she did not hear the train coming because the conductor did not have the courtesy to warn her with the horn. Her injury, while gruesome, is not nearly bad enough to have been caused by a train, at least, not directly. Additionally, it seems unlikely that she was unable to hear or see the train coming whether or not the conductor used the horn. The more likely version is that she was intoxicated, heard the train coming, and hurt herself crossing the rails. It appears that her version of the story is probably an attempt to manipulate the PR. So the reader is immediately placed in a state of confusion; how much sympathy does Wanda actually deserve? Is her manipulative story a sign of the poor character that caused her homelessness, or is the poor character something that she developed as a survival tool to deal with her homelessness?

     This theme is repeated throughout the story, as the PR befriends other residents who seem to be alternately good-hearted and manipulative. The PR observes, “At times the Study Area residents seemed bumbling, sweet, hapless, and victimized. Other times they seems vicious, aggressive, and vituperative … self-defeating, excuse making machines, spoiled rotten by free food” (Saunders, 415). These contradictions in the residents' characters represent the difficulties associated with defining homelessness as a culture. The story's focus on the residents of the Study Area is not intended to sway the reader toward political action so much as it is an attempt to remind the reader of the humanity of the residents. If Saunders had painted Wanda and the others as either the innocent victims of society or the vile perpetrators of their own fate, he would have failed to represent the true complexity of the situation.

     This conscious attempt to write honestly about the good and the bad of homeless culture is less rare among Saunders' contemporaries than it was a hundred years ago. Traditionally, the homeless have either been ignored or caricatured in literature. If they appeared in stories at all, they often occupied only comedic or tragic roles. In the poem The Homeless Ghost, written by George MacDonald in 1893, a pedestrian encounters the hauntingly beautiful ghost of a homeless woman. The narrator describes her state, “Her hair by a haunting gust was blown, / Her eyes in the shadow strangely shown, / She looked a wanderer” (MacDonald). In this poem, the plight of the homeless is romanticized as beautifully tragic. Notice the ghostly woman's hypnotic beauty. “She sat a white queen on a ruined throne, / A lily bowed with blight … Her hair was dusk as night. /Wet, wet it hung, and wept like weeds / Down her pearly shoulders bare; / The pale drops glistened like diamond beads / Caught in a silken snare” (MacDonald). She appears somewhat worn, but otherwise has a mesmerizing effect upon the narrator. MacDonald's poem avoids the realities of the life of a homeless woman, such as the inability to maintain proper hygiene, and the destructive results of isolation from society. To the narrator, the ghost deserves sympathy, but only for the haunting beauty and mystery that a real homeless woman would never be able to achieve.

     John Steinbeck's Cannery Row, written in 1945, shares this tradition of romanticism. Some of the more outrageous characters in this novel are a bumbling group of homeless men, led by a man named Mack. These characters are portrayed as carefree and happy, constantly getting themselves into comedic trouble and picking themselves up again (Steinbeck). Mack and his friends' lives are romanticized, and their worry free lifestyle is almost praised as an enlightened response to the evils of ambition (Blue). What this novel does not address is the many hardships of homelessness. Instead, in order to portray them as happy and content, Steinbeck provides his characters with a warehouse to sleep in, a source of liquor, and certain level of respect within their community. This method allows him to sidestep the moral ambiguities associated with homelessness; if homeless people are simply carefree souls, then the wealthier members of society do not need to spend much time thinking about how homelessness should be handled.

     It is true that not all texts of the late 1800s to the mid 1900s dealt so casually with the topic of homelessness, but it certainly is difficult to find a text from this period that tackles the topic of homelessness with the same brutal honesty that the reader finds in George Saunders' text. This suggests to the reader a certain distance; the realities of homelessness were something that people simply did not want to consider at length, preferring instead to caricature the homeless to fit a more comforting narrative. While that attitude may still be present today, the current state of the homeless community has caused many to reevaluate the morality of remaining indifferent.

     Homeless communities such as the one depicted in George Saunders' text have sparked a passionate debate over the political and ethical dilemma of what should be done about the homeless. In Fresno California, 2006, advocates for the homeless won a major, though temporary, victory for the homeless community. Up to that point, the city had been conducting raids on homeless camps, periodically sending in crews to dismantle tents and seize possessions, in an attempt to discourage the formation of tent cities. An article from The Associated Press describes the devastating effect of these city raids, “When city workers tore down her hillside encampment, Charlene Clay lost her asthma medicine, sleeping bags and her only photos of her dead granddaughter. The people living there weren't warned, she said...” (Munoz). In 2006, however, a judge ruled that this practice violated the rights of the homeless, because it violated their constitutional rights to property, and that to deny them their rights was inhumane (Munoz). This case is very much representative of the climate in which Tent City, U.S.A. was written. There is a clear sense of the frustration with which city leaders view the “plague” of the homeless, opposed vehemently by the moral objections of a small, but vocal group of humanist thinkers. Both sides are frustrated, and writers have responded.

     An appropriate example of this is Rule of the Bone, by Russell Banks, which portrays the journey of a teenage boy, driven to homelessness by an abusive family life. “Chappie's” journey takes him to dark places, including the lair of a biker gang, and a pedophile's truck. Chappie is more than just a victim, though. Throughout the course of the book, he commits several crimes. At one point he steals a car and takes a joy ride, another time he loots a summer house for food and firewood. Some of his crimes are the inevitable result of need while others stem from Chappie's association with social outcasts. By portraying Chappie as morally ambiguous, Banks acknowledges the inherent problems associated with the homeless lifestyle as a whole, while humanizing his homeless character and allowing the reader to understand both the problem of homelessness and the need to treat the homeless with respect. And even though this novel does seem to favor the view of homeless people as tragic characters, as opposed to a more balanced approach, it does avoid the blatant romanticism of MacDonald's The Homeless Ghost or Steinbeck's Cannery Row.

     George Saunders continues this tradition, with perhaps even more moral clarity than Russell Banks does. His story, Tent City, U.S.A., unapologetically portrays both the good and bad in his homeless characters as well as the good and bad of the institutions supporting them in their lifestyle. The text avoids use of romanticism to dishonestly bolster one position over another. A good example of this is the PR's moral confusion over what to do about the red haired girl in the tent. The PR knows that she is being prostituted out, but he wonders whether or not anything he could do would help her at all. In the PR's conversation with himself, the reader not only sees the dilemma about what to do for the red haired girl, but the larger dilemma about what to do for the homeless in general.

The PR “reminded himself that the white girl with red hair had been a whore in that tent long before he arrived, and would be a whore in that tent long after he left. All of these people had been living thus before he arrived and would continue living thus after he went home. Anything he could do would only comprise a small push in a positive direction before the tremendous momentum of their negative tendencies reasserted itself…” Even so, by walking away, “... was he not essentially consenting to her continued presence back there in the tent? … Yes. Yes, he was” (Saunders 407).

The circumstances in Tent City, U.S.A. do not present a clear answer to the PR's dilemma. Some might argue that it is this quality that makes this text such a valuable response to the modern controversy over how to best take care of the homeless. Instead of promoting a particular political position, the text simply frames the question so that the reader can be aware of the utter complexity of the situation at hand, and the need for both compassion and a healthy understanding of the various concerns that shape this controversy.

     George Saunders' Tent City, U.S.A. is a work of artistic honesty. The characters are richly developed; often a single character possesses both endearing and disturbing qualities at the same time. In light of the highly contested public debate surrounding the treatment of the homeless in society, Saunders manages to avoid preaching a political agenda and instead creates opportunity for dialogue. This story is part of a movement to break with the tradition of romanticizing homelessness in literature, in order to honestly explore the causes and implications of homelessness in a supposedly wealthy country.

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Works Cited

1. Banks, Russell. Rule of the Bone: A Novel. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1995. Print. 
2. Blue, Denise. "Homelessness In Literature." Identities & Issues In Literature (1997): 1.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
3. MacDonald, George. "The Homeless Ghost." Poetical Works Of George Macdonald In Two Volumes -- Volume 2 (1893): 62-67. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
4. Olivia Munoz - Associated Press, Writer. "Judge Orders City To Stop Homeless Raids." AP Online (2006): Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
5. Saunders, George. "Tent City, U.S.A." GQ 1 Sept. 2009. Print. 
6. Steinbeck, John. Cannery Row. New York: Viking, 1945. Print. 

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Bibliography

1. "Encouraging Homelessness." Wilson Quarterly 15.1 (1991): 120. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
2. "Fresno Officials Dismantle Homeless Encampments." All Things Considered (NPR)(2013): Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
3. Blue, Denise. "Homelessness In Literature." Identities & Issues In Literature (1997): 1.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
4. Elmhirst, Sophie. "George Saunders." New Statesman 142.5140 (2013): 51. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
5. Fischer, David Marc. "Rachel And Her Children." Magill’S Literary Annual 1989 (1989): 1-3. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
6. Hardy, Thomas. "Cry Of The Homeless." Moments Of Vision & Miscellaneous Verses(1917): 85-86. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
7. Hicok, Bob. "What Fine Kindling The Homeless Make." Kenyon Review 21.2 (1999): 45.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
8. Hoffman, Nika. "Our Lady Of The Forest." Magill’S Literary Annual 2004 (2004): 1-3.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
9. Kamenetz, Rodger. "I Am A Homeless Man." New Orleans Review 31.2 (2005): 154-158. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
10. MacDonald, George. "The Homeless Ghost." Poetical Works Of George Macdonald In Two Volumes -- Volume 2 (1893): 62-67. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
11. Morton, Margaret. "Fragile Dwelling." Grand Street 14.2 (1995): 53. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
12. Niemi, Robert. "Rule Of The Bone." Magill’s Literary Annual 1996 (1996): 1-3. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
13. Olivia Munoz - Associated Press, Writer. "Judge Orders City To Stop Homeless Raids." AP Online (2006): Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
14. Reynolds, Rob. "Deep cuts push Californians to edge." Al Jazeera (Qatar) 22 Oct. 2009: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
15. Siegal, Nina. "George Saunders: Satirist." Progressive 70.6 (n.d.): 38-39. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
16. Skipper, Jason. "George Saunders." Cyclopedia Of World Authors, Fourth Revised Edition (2003): 1-2. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014. 
17. Steinbeck, John. Cannery Row. New York: Viking, 1945. Print.

Argument Essay #3: Animal Testing

The Future of Animal Experimentation

Mary Parker

maryparker@mycwi.cc

English 201-002W

Argument Essay Three

12/15/14

____________________________________________

Abstract

     For years, the practice of animal experimentation in biomedical research has caused controversy between animal activists and animal researchers. This controversy, and the debate that surrounds it, has created the impression that there are only two viable options to choose from, either banning animal testing altogether or embracing it completely as a necessary cost. Such a belief is disheartening, for neither strategy can wholly satisfy the ethical concerns that are central to this debate. Therefore, such thinking is counterproductive. Instead, the ethical concerns of both sides need to be evaluated honestly, in order to create the basis for a moderate strategy that has the potential to answer the concerns of animal activists and animal researchers alike. Towards that end, the history of the controversy will be examined and a potential solution identified.

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The Future of Animal Experimentation

      The argument over the ethical implications of animal testing, whether in regards to the benefit for humans or the suffering of animals, is often emotionally charged and fairly polarizing. Many believe that the benefits of animal testing outweigh the concerns, given the role of animal testing in biomedical research and the study of disease. Others insist that any form of suffering, even of the lower creatures, is unethical. Because of the morally compelling nature of the concerns on both sides, it would appear that a satisfactory resolution to this conflict is practically impossible. Therefore, the only way to mend this polarization and to inspire real change is to first acknowledge the validity of the concerns on both sides, and then to adopt an approach that will gradually shift to animal friendly procedures without compromising safety standards for humans in the biomedical fields.

     

Engber

   The most compelling argument for animal testing is its contribution to medical science, especially in regards to drug and chemical testing. Animals are used in medical studies to determine the safety of experimental drugs before they are released for use, a precaution that saves lives. Due to the demands of research, the number of animals used in this way has significantly risen since the 1950s (Engber). One of these tests, the “2-year rodent carcinogenicity bioassay”, tests chemicals that may be used in household goods for carcinogenic effects. As stated, this process takes two years, and any harmful side effects that may come from prolonged exposure to the chemical in question are recorded and acted upon accordingly. Despite the high cost and inconvenience of the process, efforts to replace this bioassay with animal-free alternatives have been unsuccessful because of the complexity of the biological processes that affect the way that chemicals and drugs are metabolized (Doktorova, et al). It appears that it is too early to replace this test with a more humane one, and yet it would be irresponsible to discontinue the test altogether.

     Given examples such as the carcinogenicity bioassay, many in the scientific community are reluctant to concede the ethical concerns for animal suffering that the practice raises. Animal activists, however, are not convinced. The modern animal rights movement is centered on the philosophy of the “intrinsic value [of] all sentient beings. … afford[ing] [all] vertebrates rights, despite their incapacity to understand or demand such rights” (Franco). In other words, it is an animal’s ability to suffer, not its intelligence on the one hand or its usefulness on the other that determines the morality of exploiting the creature for human benefit.

     It is this conviction, paired with public animal rights violations and the secrecy surrounding research projects, which causes so much concern for animal activists. Incidents such as the 2005 University of Nevada at Reno animal care violations cause alarm. The university was inspected after a whistleblower reached out to the Department of Agriculture. The resulting investigation “cited a total of 46 violations on the Reno campus … including insufficient water for animals, poor sanitation in holding facilities, and inadequate veterinary care”, for which the university was fined a little over $11,000 (Brainard). Like other incidents, the neglect would never have come to light had it not been for the burdened conscience of one of the university’s own faculty. This incident and others like it might not seem so sinister to animal activists if it weren’t for the fact that it is incredibly difficult to obtain information on the welfare of the animals currently involved in research. This is due to Section 24 of the Animals Act, which requires those seeking information to go through the tedious process of “making a Freedom of Information request” (Brooks). The inability to verify animals’ welfare greatly increases animal activists’ frustration with the current system.

     Past solutions to this dilemma have been shortsighted on both sides. This is because much of the debate has been organized into an argument of science and medicine versus ethics, and the idea that we can only choose one or the other. In some ways, radical animal rights activists are responsible for building this wall of opposition, due to the extreme measures they took, starting in the 1970s. At that time, animal rights extremist groups began committing acts of terrorism against research facilities and personally against the researchers themselves, marring the reputation of the animal rights movement as a whole (Franco). Not surprisingly, the response from the research community was less than positive. As recently as the 1990s, newspaper articles mocked the animal rights movement as one based on pipe dreams, stating that the use of animals in biomedical experimentation was the only viable way to further any meaningful research (Franco). The conflict between animal activists and the scientific community was exacerbated by the actions, or lack thereof, of both sides. As a result of this mentality, very little practical progress was made to address this issue, increasing general frustration.

     The current solution to the conflict between medical discovery and animal ethics involves some fairly vague legislation, which only appears to satisfy the concerns of both groups. In practical application, however, this legislation favors animal testing over other alternatives. The Animal Welfare Act of 1966 was the first act to extend ethical concerns in research to laboratory animals, stating that animals should be kept humanely and experiments involving animals should serve real scientific needs. However, the act failed to set down guidelines for these criteria and completely ignored the need for alternatives to animal testing, wherever possible (Horner, et al). A more recent policy seems to correct this oversight, but only nominally. In 2002, the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee Guidebook was published, which emphasized what has popularly become known as the 3Rs of animal experimentation, Reduce, Refine, Replace. This approach recognizes the evolution that must take place within the context of research practices before we can finally end the practice of animal experimentation (Horner, et al). However, this policy is only effective if it can be taught and then enforced, which is where the deficit lies.

     The ethics committees that evaluate experimental procedures for the protection of animals are largely disorganized, and only questionably effective. The standards by which to judge experimental practices are poorly defined, leaving ethics committees vulnerable to internal debate and confusion (Kolar). Additionally, these ethics committees, when scrutinized, are revealed to be inconsistent in their judgments, in everything from their “structure, [to] their decision-making methods, [to] the time they take to review proposals” (Varga). All of this contributes to the ineffectiveness of current animal experimentation legislation, resulting in a situation in which we appear to be on the right track to transform research practices to encompass both human and animal needs and welfare, when in fact we have made very little progress in this regard.

     However, a recent study on the practical application of the 3Rs principle in medical research revealed that it is indeed possible to significantly reduce the number of animals used in toxicology tests by equipping researchers with the right tools, support, and information. Before the study was conducted, these researchers interviewed the scientists who would be testing these new methods of experimentation. They found that scientists generally wanted to embrace the principle of the 3Rs, but felt unequipped to do so, often resorting to traditional testing methods for lack of a better alternatives (Törnqvist, et al). To answer this need, “36 reduction projects were collected retrospectively from work between 2006 and 2010. Substantial reduction in animal use was achieved by different strategies, including improved study design, method development and project coordination. Major animal savings were shown in both regulatory and investigative safety studies”, with an overall reduction in animal use of 53% (Törnqvist, et al). Implementing these methods across the board would take time and cooperation, but the effects would be significant. Not only would large scale adoption of these methods greatly improve the practice of animal experimentation from an ethical standpoint, but it would prove to benefit researchers as well, by reducing the costs associated with obtaining and caring for lab animals.

     While the relationship between animal activists and animal researchers has been strained in the past, studies like the one conducted by Törnqvist, et al, show that there are ways to help the research field improve on traditional testing techniques in order to minimize both animal suffering and general cost. Only the abandonment of extreme pro and anti-testing philosophies will allow animal activists and animal researchers alike to achieve real progress in biomedical testing practices, for the sake of both human health and animal welfare. It is time to move past the polarization that has defined this controversy for so long in order to embrace a more practical strategy that contains the potential for real progress. 

___________________________________________

Works Cited

Brainard, Jeffrey. "The University Of Nevada At Reno Has Paid A Fine Of $11,400 To The U.S. Department Of Agriculture For Violating Rules Governing The Care Of Animals In Research." Chronicle of Higher Education 51.40 (2005): A18. Professional Development Collection. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Brooks, Michael. "The Truth about Animal Testing." New Statesman 141.5115 (2012): 14. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Doktorova, Tatyana Y., et al. "Opportunities for an Alternative Integrating Testing Strategy for Carcinogen Hazard Assessment?" Critical Reviews in Toxicology 42.2 (2012): 91-106. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Engber, Daniel. "The Mouse Trap: Can One Lab Animal Cure Every Disease?" Slate.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2014.

Franco, Nuno Henrique. "Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective." Animals (2076-2615) 3.1 (2013): 238-273. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Horner, Jennifer, and Fred D. Minifie. "Research Ethics I: Responsible Conduct Of Research (RCR)--Historical And Contemporary Issues Pertaining To Human And Animal Experimentation." Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research 54.1 (2011): S303-S329. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Kolar, Roman. "Animal Experimentation." Science & Engineering Ethics 12.1 (2006): 111-122. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Törnqvist, Elin, et al. "Strategic Focus on 3R Principles Reveals Major Reductions in the Use of Animals in Pharmaceutical Toxicity Testing." Plos ONE 9.7 (2014): 1-11. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Varga, Orsolya. "Critical Analysis of Assessment Studies of the Animal Ethics Review Process." Animals (2076-2615) 3.3 (2013): 907-922. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

__________________________________________

Bibliography

"DOD Animal Research: Controls On Animal Use Are Generally Effective, But Improvements Are Needed: NSIAD/HEHS-99-156." GAO Reports (1999): 1. Middle Search Plus. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

"Europe Enacts Full Ban On Animal Testing For Cosmetics." Dermatology Times 34.4 (2013): 14. Health Source - Consumer Edition. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

"Ex Vivo Animal Testing Alternative Introduced." Global Cosmetic Industry 176.1 (2008): 8. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Beyer, L. A., B. D. Beck, and T. A. Lewandowski. "Historical Perspective on the Use of Animal Bioassays to Predict Carcinogenicity: Evolution in Design and Recognition of Utility." Critical Reviews in Toxicology 41.4 (2011): 321-338. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Bishop, Patricia L., et al. "Animal Use and Lessons Learned In the U.S. High Production Volume Chemicals Challenge Program." Environmental Health Perspectives 120.12 (2012): 1631-1639. Health Source - Consumer Edition. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Brainard, Jeffrey. "The University Of Nevada At Reno Has Paid A Fine Of $11,400 To The U.S. Department Of Agriculture For Violating Rules Governing The Care Of Animals In Research." Chronicle of Higher Education 51.40 (2005): A18. Professional Development Collection. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Brooks, Michael. "The Truth about Animal Testing." New Statesman 141.5115 (2012): 14. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Clark, Evan. "U.S. And EU Agencies to Share Information about Animal Testing." WWD: Women's Wear Daily 194.9 (2007): 4. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Doktorova, Tatyana Y., et al. "Opportunities for an Alternative Integrating Testing Strategy for Carcinogen Hazard Assessment?" Critical Reviews in Toxicology 42.2 (2012): 91-106. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Forster, Roy, et al. "The RETHINK Project: Minipigs As Models For The Toxicity Testing Of New Medicines And Chemicals: An Impact Assessment." Journal of Pharmacological & Toxicological Methods 62.3 (2010): 158-159. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Franco, Nuno Henrique. "Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective." Animals (2076-2615) 3.1 (2013): 238-273. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Geffken, Carl. "EU Nears Animal Testing Ban." Global Cosmetic Industry 168.5 (2001): 12. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Grant, Christian W., et al. "Testing Agents for Prevention or Reversal of Type 1 Diabetes in Rodents." Plos ONE 8.8 (2013): 1. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Herman, Steve. "The New Toxicology." Global Cosmetic Industry 174.8 (2006): 62-63. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Hoe-Yune, Jung, et al. "The Korean Mistletoe (Viscum Album Coloratutn) Extract Has an Antiobesity Effect and Protects Against Hepatic Steatosis in Mice with High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity." Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine (Ecam) (2013): 1-9. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Horner, Jennifer, and Fred D. Minifie. "Research Ethics I: Responsible Conduct Of Research (RCR)--Historical And Contemporary Issues Pertaining To Human And Animal Experimentation." Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research 54.1 (2011): S303-S329. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Kolar, Roman. "Animal Experimentation." Science & Engineering Ethics 12.1 (2006): 111-122. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Menache, Andre, and Candida Nastrucci. "REACH, Animal Testing, And The Precautionary Principle." Medicolegal & Bioethics 2.(2012): 13-29. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Sullivan, Kristie. "EU Cosmetics Testing Ban Now In Place." Good Medicine 18.3 (2009): 4. Alt Health Watch. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Törnqvist, Elin, et al. "Strategic Focus on 3R Principles Reveals Major Reductions in the Use of Animals in Pharmaceutical Toxicity Testing." Plos ONE 9.7 (2014): 1-11. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Tralau, Tewes, et al. "Wind of Change Challenges Toxicological Regulators." Environmental Health Perspectives 120.11 (2012): 1489-1494. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Uctas, Rachel. "Testing Times." ICIS Chemical Business 273.14 (2008): 38-39. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.


Varga, Orsolya. "Critical Analysis of Assessment Studies of the Animal Ethics Review Process." Animals (2076-2615) 3.3 (2013): 907-922. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Final Semester Reflection

Mary Parker
maryparker@mycwi.cc
English 201-002W
Final Semester Reflection
12/15/2014

It’s a Process

     Rewind to August 25th, 2014. I would be lying if I told you I could remember exactly what I did the first day of this semester, but, for the purpose of this paper, let’s say I was a model student. I got up bright and early, ate a healthy breakfast, and opened up Blackboard without delay. I am not sure what I expected from this class, but we’re fictionalizing, remember? Perhaps I expected to breeze right through, write a couple of three page papers, and review some grammar (spelled with an AR, thank you very much). I guess the joke is on me. I don’t have to guess when I say that what followed was a very challenging semester for me, especially in regards to my writing stamina. But, as I tested new strategies, and applied myself to the writing process, I discovered that I could manage the challenge, and even enjoy the experience.


     The most important thing that I believe I have gained from the work we have done this semester is a greater comfort with longer essay assignments. While all three of my essays turned out to be very similar in length, the level of effort required to achieve those essay lengths diminished with each assignment. I remember how I felt when I viewed the first essay assignment, and I saw that it was to be 5-7 pages in length. I was not at all used to writing that long of an essay, and I didn’t really believe that I could pull it off. Somehow, I managed. I say that facetiously now, but at the time that’s how I felt. However, by the time I started working on my third essay, I felt quite differently. I had learned how to bulk up my essays with more research and better sources. I began to enjoy the process, because I saw how much more satisfying and complex my essays could be when I had the space to explore a subject in depth. In fact, I found myself having to cut out a lot of material from that essay in order to stay within the parameters of the assignment.


     Of course, there are still things I need to work on in the future. Most importantly, I need to work on my editing. Anyone who has read both the first draft and the final draft of any of my papers would know that very little changes between drafts. This is possibly due to poor planning; I don’t give myself enough time to make any significant changes to the final draft before I submit. But it’s more than that, really. It’s that I’m blind to my specific faults, although I am generally aware that I could have done something better.


     Regardless, I am pleased with the ways in which my writing has improved this semester, and I anticipate that I will enter my next round of classes confident in my ability to handle any writing assignment my future teachers throw my way. Although I have decided that the English degree is not for me, I am thankful that I had the chance to take this class, if only for the confidence I have gained. I now know I can go the distance if I need to, and am much more prepared to generate a scholarly response to topics from multiple academic fields.


     So where does that leave me? I can honestly say that I am a very different student than I was on August 25th, 2014. A lot of that is due to this class. In this class I learned to research more thoroughly and think more critically. I learned that I don’t need to be afraid of assignments that challenge me. But most importantly, I learned not to expect anything worthwhile to be particularly easy. I haven’t changed completely, though. You might notice that this paper is only two pages long, despite my self-congratulatory comments on my recent improvements in page length. I guess it’s a process.

Polished Comprehensive Bibliography

Comprehensive Bibliography

Essay 1: IQ Testing

Esters, Irvin G., and Richard F. Ittenbach. "Today's IQ Tests: Are They Really Better Than Their Historical Predecessors?." School Psychology Review 26.2 (1997): 211. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.

Francis, David J., and Jack M. Fletcher. "Defining Learning And Language Disabilities: Conceptual And Psychometric Issues With The Use Of IQ Tests." Language, Speech & Hearing Services In Schools 27.2 (1996): 132-143. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.

Minton, Henry L. "Introduction To: "New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals." Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon (1905)." Classics in the History of Psychology. York University, Toronto, Ontario, n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2014.

Schwartz, Edward M., and Anna S. Elonen. "Iq And The Myth Of Stability: A 16-Year Longitudinal Study Of Variations In Intelligence Test Performance." Journal Of Clinical Psychology 31.4 (1975): 687-694. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.

Shuttleworth-Edwards, Ann B., et al. "Cross-Cultural Effects On IQ Test Performance: A Review And Preliminary Normative Indications On WAIS-III Test Performance." Journal Of Clinical & Experimental Neuropsychology 26.7 (2004): 903-920. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.



Zigler, Edward, and Earl C. Butterfield. "Motivational Aspects Of Changes In Iq Test Performance Of Culturally Deprived Nursery School Children." Child Development 39.1 (1968): 7. Academic Search Premier. Web. 18 Sept. 2014.

Essay 2: Tent City, U.S.A.

"Encouraging Homelessness." Wilson Quarterly 15.1 (1991): 120. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

"Fresno Officials Dismantle Homeless Encampments." All Things Considered (NPR)(2013): Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Banks, Russell. Rule of the Bone: A Novel. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1995. Print.

Blue, Denise. "Homelessness In Literature." Identities & Issues In Literature (1997): 1.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Blue, Denise. "Homelessness In Literature." Identities & Issues In Literature (1997): 1.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Elmhirst, Sophie. "George Saunders." New Statesman 142.5140 (2013): 51. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Fischer, David Marc. "Rachel And Her Children." Magill’S Literary Annual 1989 (1989): 1-3. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Hardy, Thomas. "Cry Of The Homeless." Moments Of Vision & Miscellaneous Verses(1917): 85-86. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Hicok, Bob. "What Fine Kindling The Homeless Make." Kenyon Review 21.2 (1999): 45.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Hoffman, Nika. "Our Lady Of The Forest." Magill’S Literary Annual 2004 (2004): 1-3.Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Kamenetz, Rodger. "I Am A Homeless Man." New Orleans Review 31.2 (2005): 154-158. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

MacDonald, George. "The Homeless Ghost." Poetical Works Of George Macdonald In Two Volumes -- Volume 2 (1893): 62-67. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

MacDonald, George. "The Homeless Ghost." Poetical Works Of George Macdonald In Two Volumes -- Volume 2 (1893): 62-67. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Morton, Margaret. "Fragile Dwelling." Grand Street 14.2 (1995): 53. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Niemi, Robert. "Rule Of The Bone." Magill’s Literary Annual 1996 (1996): 1-3. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Olivia Munoz - Associated Press, Writer. "Judge Orders City To Stop Homeless Raids." AP Online (2006): Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Olivia Munoz - Associated Press, Writer. "Judge Orders City To Stop Homeless Raids." AP Online (2006): Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Reynolds, Rob. "Deep cuts push Californians to edge." Al Jazeera (Qatar) 22 Oct. 2009: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Saunders, George. "Tent City, U.S.A." GQ 1 Sept. 2009. Print.

Siegal, Nina. "George Saunders: Satirist." Progressive 70.6 (n.d.): 38-39. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Skipper, Jason. "George Saunders." Cyclopedia Of World Authors, Fourth Revised Edition (2003): 1-2. Literary Reference Center. Web. 27 Oct. 2014.

Steinbeck, John. Cannery Row. New York: Viking, 1945. Print.



Steinbeck, John. Cannery Row. New York: Viking, 1945. Print.

Essay 3: Animal Experimentation

"DOD Animal Research: Controls On Animal Use Are Generally Effective, But Improvements Are Needed: NSIAD/HEHS-99-156." GAO Reports (1999): 1. Middle Search Plus. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

"Europe Enacts Full Ban On Animal Testing For Cosmetics." Dermatology Times 34.4 (2013): 14. Health Source - Consumer Edition. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

"Ex Vivo Animal Testing Alternative Introduced." Global Cosmetic Industry 176.1 (2008): 8. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Beyer, L. A., B. D. Beck, and T. A. Lewandowski. "Historical Perspective on the Use of Animal Bioassays to Predict Carcinogenicity: Evolution in Design and Recognition of Utility." Critical Reviews in Toxicology 41.4 (2011): 321-338. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Bishop, Patricia L., et al. "Animal Use and Lessons Learned In the U.S. High Production Volume Chemicals Challenge Program." Environmental Health Perspectives 120.12 (2012): 1631-1639. Health Source - Consumer Edition. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Brainard, Jeffrey. "The University Of Nevada At Reno Has Paid A Fine Of $11,400 To The U.S. Department Of Agriculture For Violating Rules Governing The Care Of Animals In Research." Chronicle of Higher Education 51.40 (2005): A18. Professional Development Collection. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Brooks, Michael. "The Truth about Animal Testing." New Statesman 141.5115 (2012): 14. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Clark, Evan. "U.S. And EU Agencies to Share Information about Animal Testing." WWD: Women's Wear Daily 194.9 (2007): 4. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Doktorova, Tatyana Y., et al. "Opportunities for an Alternative Integrating Testing Strategy for Carcinogen Hazard Assessment?" Critical Reviews in Toxicology 42.2 (2012): 91-106. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Forster, Roy, et al. "The RETHINK Project: Minipigs As Models For The Toxicity Testing Of New Medicines And Chemicals: An Impact Assessment." Journal of Pharmacological & Toxicological Methods 62.3 (2010): 158-159. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Franco, Nuno Henrique. "Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective." Animals (2076-2615) 3.1 (2013): 238-273. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Geffken, Carl. "EU Nears Animal Testing Ban." Global Cosmetic Industry 168.5 (2001): 12. Business Source Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Grant, Christian W., et al. "Testing Agents for Prevention or Reversal of Type 1 Diabetes in Rodents." Plos ONE 8.8 (2013): 1. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Herman, Steve. "The New Toxicology." Global Cosmetic Industry 174.8 (2006): 62-63. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Hoe-Yune, Jung, et al. "The Korean Mistletoe (Viscum Album Coloratutn) Extract Has an Antiobesity Effect and Protects Against Hepatic Steatosis in Mice with High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity." Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine (Ecam) (2013): 1-9. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Horner, Jennifer, and Fred D. Minifie. "Research Ethics I: Responsible Conduct Of Research (RCR)--Historical And Contemporary Issues Pertaining To Human And Animal Experimentation." Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research 54.1 (2011): S303-S329. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Kolar, Roman. "Animal Experimentation." Science & Engineering Ethics 12.1 (2006): 111-122. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Menache, Andre, and Candida Nastrucci. "REACH, Animal Testing, And The Precautionary Principle." Medicolegal & Bioethics 2.(2012): 13-29. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Sullivan, Kristie. "EU Cosmetics Testing Ban Now In Place." Good Medicine 18.3 (2009): 4. Alt Health Watch. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Törnqvist, Elin, et al. "Strategic Focus on 3R Principles Reveals Major Reductions in the Use of Animals in Pharmaceutical Toxicity Testing." Plos ONE 9.7 (2014): 1-11. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Tralau, Tewes, et al. "Wind of Change Challenges Toxicological Regulators." Environmental Health Perspectives 120.11 (2012): 1489-1494. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Uctas, Rachel. "Testing Times." ICIS Chemical Business 273.14 (2008): 38-39. Small Business Reference Center. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.



Varga, Orsolya. "Critical Analysis of Assessment Studies of the Animal Ethics Review Process." Animals (2076-2615) 3.3 (2013): 907-922. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.